The Ganga River and its tributaries

 

The Ganga River

India's most Important river system, it cover more than a fourth of the country's total surface. The upper course of Ganga is popularly known as Bhagirathi. The Gangotri glacier of Gomukh (an ice cave in the Himalayas) is the source flowing  southward is known as Alakananda. The Ganga is formed by these two head streams when they meet at Devaprayag. Beyond Farakka in West Bengal, the mainstream of the Ganga which flows east-south-eastward into Bangladesh is known as Padma. A bifurcation channel runs southwards through the deltaic plan on to the sea. Here the river is known as the Bhagirathi-Hooghly. To the east of the Pabna (near Goalundo), the Padma receives the Brahmaputra known here as Jamuna. The combined stream continues to flow as Padma, till is receives the Meghna to the north of Chandpur. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the largest delta of the world, the Sunderbans. The Ganga has numerous larg and small tributaries. The Ram Ganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandhak and the Kosi are its major left bank tributaries while the Yamuna and the Son form the major right bank tributaries.

Name the Tributaries of Ganga

The Yamuna River

The Yamuna rises at the  Yamunotri glacier, on the western slope of Baderpunch at a height of 6,316 m. It flow towards the south up to Agra and farther down towards the south-east direction till it joins the Ganga at Allahabad (Prayag). Chambal, Sind, Betwa and the Ken ( which originate in the Malwa Plateau and passes through Panna district in MP ) are its important tributaries.

The Chambal River

The Chambal rise near Mhow in the Vindhyan range in the Malwa Plateau in Madhya Pradesh and flows up to Kota towards north. After traversing Bundi, Sawi Madhopur and Dholpur, it joins Yamuna river in the southern part of the Etawah district. It has a length of 1,050 km. Its important left bank tributary is the Banas. The Sind, the Betwa and Ken flow towards the North. Many ravines (the Chambal ravines) in the Ganga plain are formed.

The Son River

The Son Originating from Amarkantak plateau, it flows to the north and meets the Kashmir range which diverts its course towards the north-east. It flows for 780 km before joining the Ganga at Bankipura near Arrah, west of Patna. It drains an area of 71,900 sq km. Its tributaries mostly join it on its right bank.

The Ram Ganga River

The Ram Ganga River Rising in the Kumaon Himalayas and flowing into the Ganga plain near Kalagarh, the Ram Ganga runs for 690 km before pouring itself into the Ganga near Kannauj. 32,000 sq km of area is drained by this river.

The Sarda River

The Sarda Also called the Chauka and Kali (along the Indo-Nepal border), it begins in the Milam glacier in the Great Himalaya in Nepal (where it is called the Goriganga) and join the right bank of the Ghaghra near Bahramghat.

The Ghaghra River

The Ghaghra Originating from east of Gangotri in the glacier of Mapcha-chungo, the Ghaghra is has a course of 1,080 km.  More than half of the 1,27,500 sq km drained by it falls in Nepal territory. It abounds in silt and so is forced to often shift its course. It meets the Ganga at Chhapra (Bihar) after the Sarda joins it.

The Gandhak River

The Gandhak Rising near the Nepal-China border at a height of 7,600 m in the central Himalaya, the Gandhak enters Bihar in Champaran district, turns south-east and meets Ganga on its at Sonpur. Even the Gangdak often changes courses. It turns for 425 km and drains 48,500 sq.km of area of which 9,540 sq km in India.

The Kosi River

The Kosi Rising from the peaks of Tibet the Kosi, an antecedent river, drains eastern Nepal and enters Saharsa district in Bihar via numerous channels. The channels flowing from north to south are received by the westernmost channels after it makes a bend to the east. It drains the area between Gosainthan and the Kanchenjunga in the Himalaya. The main stream of Kosi, the  Arun- also Phungchu, in Tibetan - rise to the north of Gosainthan and is joined by the Son-Kosi from the west and the Tamur-Kosi from the east to from the Sapta-Kosi. It has a length of 730 km in India. It ends in the Ganga below Bhagalpur. The Kosi is known as the "Sorrow of Bihar" as it causes devastating floods. It has changed its course greatly over time.

The Damodar River

The Damodar It rises in the Chhotanagpur plateau near Tori in the Palamau district of Jharkhand. Its tributaries are the Garhi, Konar, Jamunia and the Barakar. It becomes a large river after its confluence with the Barakar. It  Joins the Hooghly, at Falta, after a course of nearly 541 km, a few kilometers  below Kolkata. It drains 22,000 sq km of area. River Damodar is known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" as it causes widespread destruction of lives, cattle and crops due to frequent flooding. It joins the Ganga from the right However, the Damodar Valley Construction has improved the situation

The Mahananda River

The Mahananda rises in the Darjeeling  hills in West Bengal near Siliguri. It makes sharp curves before it joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary.

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Iranian and Macedonian Invasion/Alexander The Great

 

Iranian Invasion

In north-east India smaller principalities and republics gradually merged with the Magadhan empire. But the north-west India Presented a different picture in the first half of the sixth century B.C Several small principalities such as those of the kambojas, Gandharas and Madras fought one another. This area did not have any powerful kingdom like that of Magadha to weld the warring communities into one wealthy, and could be easily entered through the passes in the Hindukush.

The Achaemenien rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan princes, took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler Darius penetrated into north-west India in 516 B.C and Sindh. This area constituted the total  number of  satrapies in the Iranian empire being 28. The Indian satrapy included Sindh, the north-west frontier and the part of Punjab that lay to the west of the Indus. It was  the most fertile and populous part of the empire. It paid a tribute of 360 talents of gold, which accounted for one-third of the total revenue of Iran from its Asian provinces. The Indian subjects were also enrolled in the Iranian army. Xerxes, the successor of Dirius, employed Indian in the long war against the Greeks. It appears that Indian continued to be a part of the Iranian empire till alexander's invasion of India.

Results of the Contact

The Indo-Iranian contact lasted for about 200 years. it gave an impetus to Indo-Iranian trade and commerce. The culture results were more important. The Iranian scribes brought into India a form of writing which came to be known as the Kharoshthi script. It was written from right to left like the  Arabic. Some Ashokan inscription in north-west. India were written in the third century B.C. in this script, which continued to be used in the country till the third century A.D. Iranian coins are also found in the north-west frontier region which points to the  existence of trade with Iran. But it is wrong to think that punch-marked coins came into use in India as a result of contact with Iran. However, Irrnian influence on the Maurya sculpture is clearly perceptible. The monuments of Ashoka's time, especially the bell shaped capital models. Iranian influence  may also be traced in the preamble of Ashoka's edicts as well as in certain terms used in them. for instance, for the Iranian term dipi, the Ashokan scribe used the term lipi. further it seems that through the Iranians the Greeks came to know about the great wealth of India, which whetted their greed and eventually led to Alexander's invasion  of India.

Alexander's Invasion/Alexander The Great 

In the fourth century B.C. the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks finally destroyed the Iranian empire. Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran.  from Iran he marched to India, obviously attracted by its great wealth. Herodotus, who is called father of history, other Greek writers  had painted India as a fabulous land, which tempted Alexander to invade it. Alexander also geographical inquiry and natural history. He had heard that the Caspian Sea continued on the eastern side of India. He was also inspired by the mythical exploits of past conquerors whom he wanted to emulate and surpass.

The political condition of north-west India suited his plans. The area was parcelled out into manty independent monarchies and tribal republics which were strongly wedded to the soil and had a fierce love of the principality over which they ruled. Alexander found it easy to conquer these principalities one by one. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well known - Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Pours whose kingdom key lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. Together they might have effectively resisted the advance of Alexander. But they could not put up a joint front: the Khyber pass remained unguarded.

        After the conquest of Iran Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where the marched to India through the Khyber pass in 326 B.C. It took him five months to reach the Indus. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure. When he reached the Jhelum, Alexander met from Pours the first and the strongest resistance. Although Alexander defeated Pours, he was impressed by the bravery and courage of the Indian prince. so he restored his kingdom to him and made him his ally. Then he advance as far as the Beas river. He wanted to move still further eastward but his army refused to accompany him. The Greek soldiers had grown war-weary and diseased. The hot climate of India and ten years of continuos campaigning had made them terribly homesick. They had also experienced a taste of Indian fighting qualities on the banks of the Indus, which made them desist from further progress. As the Greek historian Arrian tells us: "In the art of war the Indians were far superior to the other nations inhabitting the area at that time. "Especially the Greek soldiers were told of a formidable power on the Ganga. Obviously it was the kingdom of Magadha ruled by the Nandas who maintained an army far out numbering that of Alexander. So despite the repeated appeals of Alexander to advance, the Greek soldiers did not budge an inch. Alexander lamented "I am trying to rouse the hearts that are disloyal and crushed with craven fears" The king who had never known defeat at the hands of his enemies had to accept defeat from his own men. He was forced to retreat, and his dream of an eastern empire remained unfulfilled. On his return march Alexander vanquished many small republics until he reached the end of the Indian frontier. He remained in India for 19 month (326-325 B.C), which were full of fighting. He had barely any time to organize his conquests. Still he made some arrangement. Most conquered states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority. But his own territorial possessions were divided into three parts, which were placed under three Greek governors. He also founded a number of cities to maintain his power in this area. 

Effects of Alexander's Invasion

Alexander's invasion provided the first occasion when ancient Europe came into close contact with ancient India. It produced important result. The Indian campaign of Alexander was a triumphant success. He added to his empire larger than that conquered by Iran, though the Greek possessions in India were soon lost to the Maurya rulers.

The most important outcome of this invasion was the establishment of direct contact between India and Greece in different fields. Alexander's campaign opened up four distinct routes by Greek merchants and craftsmen, and increased the existing facilities for trade.

Although we hear of some Greeks living on the north-west even before the invasion of Alexander, the invasion led to the establishment of more Greek settlements in this area. The most important of  them were city of Alexandria in the Kabul region, Boukephala  on the Jhelum, and Alexandria in Sindh. although these areas were conquered by the Mauryas, the Greeks continued to live under both Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. 

Alexander was deeply interested in the geography of the mysterious ocean which he saw the first time at the mouth of the Indus. therefore he dispatched his new fleet under his friend Nearchus to explore the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of the Euphrates. So Alexander's historians have left valuable geographical accounts. They also have left clearly dated records of Alexander's  campaign, which enable us to build Indian chronology for subsequent events on a definite basis. Alexander's historian also give us important information about social and economic condition. 

By destroying the power of petty states in north-west India, Alexander's invasion paved the way for the expansion of the Maurya in that area. According to tradition Chandragupta Maurya, Who founded the Maurya empire, had seen something of the working of the  military machine of Alexander and had  acquired some knowledge which helped him in destroying the power of the Nandas.

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The Story of Goutam Buddha

 

Buddhism

Buddha's Life

Goutam Buddha, founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC, on the vaisakha purnima day ay Lumbinivana (Rummindehi District, Nepal) in the Sakya Kshatriya clan. His father Suddhodhna was the republican king of Kapilvastu and mother Mahaprajapati was a princess of Kollia republic.

After his mother's early death, he was brought up by his step mother and aunt mahaprajapati Goutami. His father married him at an early age to Yasodhara (Princess of Shakya dynasty) from whom he had a son Rahul.

Four sight - an old man, a diseased person, a dead body and an ascetic-proved to be a turning point in his carrier. At the age of 29, he renounced home, this was his Mahabhinishkramana (great going forth) and become a wandering ascetic. His first teacher was Alara kalama (Sankhya philosopher) from  whom he learnt the technique of meditation. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. At the age of 35, under a pipal tree at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river Nirvana (enlightenment) after 49 days of continuous meditation; now he was a fully enlightened.

buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath  to his five disciples, this is known as Dharmachakra Pravartana. He died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kshinagar. This is known as Mahaparinirvana.

Doctrine of Buddhism

Chatwari Arya Satyani (Four Noble Truths)

It is the  essence of Buddhism 

1. Life is full of sorrow

2. There are causes of sorrow

3. This sorrow can be stopped

4. There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow

Sects of Buddhism

Hinayana

1. Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha

2. They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

3. They did not believe in idol-worship

4. They favored Pali language 

5. It is known as 'Southern Buddhist Religion', because it prevailed in the South of India, Sri Lanka,            Burma, Thailand and Java etc.

6. There were two subsects of Hinayana - Vaibhasika and Sautantrika.

Mahayana

1. Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha

2. They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatva

3. They believed in idol-worship

4. They favoured Sanskrit language

5. It is known as ' Northern Buddhist Religion' , Because it prevailed in the North of India, China,              Korea, Japan, etc.

6. there were two subsects of Mahayana- Madhyamika/Shunyavada (founder - Nagarjuna) and                    Yogachar/ Vijnanavada (founder - Maitreyanath and his disciple Asanga)

Vajrayana

1. Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which          they called Vajra

2. The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras 

3. It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar

Bodhisattvas

1. Vajrapani, like Indra, he hold a thunderbolt, foe of sin and evil

2. Avlokitesvara  also called Padmapani 

3. Manjushri (Stimulator of understanding) He hold a book describing 10 paramitas 

4. Maitreya, the future Buddha

5. Kshitigriha, guardian of purgatories

6. Amitabha / Amitayusha, Buddha of Heaven

Sacred Shrines

Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the four principal events of the Buddha's life, namely Birth, Enlightenment, Frist Sermon and Death took place. To these are added four places Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vaishali and Sankasya - these eight place have all along been considered as the eight holy places. Other centeres of Buddhism in Ancient India- Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Vallabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharut in Madhya Pradesh; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra; Dhaulagiri in Odisha; Kannauj, Kaushambi and Mathutra in Uttar Pradesh; and Jgadala and Somapuri in West Bengal. Buddhist architecture was developed in three form 

1. Stupa - relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved

2. Chaitya - prayer hall

3. Vihara -  residence / monasteries 

Dhaulagiri in Odisha

Ellora in Maharashtra

Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh 

Nalanda in Bihar

Royal Patrons : 

Bimbisara and Ajatashatru (Magadhan ruler), Prasenjit (Kosala ruler), Udayan (Vatsa ruler), Pradyota (Avanti Ruler), Ashoka and Dasharatha (Mauryan ruler), Milinda / Menander (Indo-Greek ruler), Kanishka (Kushana ruler), Harshavardhana (Vardhna ruler), Gopala, Dharmapala and Rampala (Pala ruler)

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